After Alexander's conquests the region of Bithynia came under the rule of the native king Bas, who defeated Calas, a general of Alexander the Great, and maintained the independence of Bithynia. Under the Antigonids, Macedonia was often short on funds, the Pangaeum mines were no longer as productive as under Philip II, the wealth from Alexander's campaigns had been used up and the countryside pillaged by the Gallic invasion. These policies can also be interpreted as the result of Alexander's possible megalomania[112] during his later years. [80] Under the Hellenistic kingdoms, Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the High Priest of Israel as a Hellenistic vassal. A whole class of petty officials, tax farmers, clerks and overseers made this possible. Under Ptolemy II, Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Theocritus, and a host of other poets including the Alexandrian Pleiad made the city a center of Hellenistic literature. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 6: The Fourth Century BC by D. M. Lewis (Editor), John Boardman (Editor), Simon Hornblower (Editor), M. Ostwald (Editor), Dalmatia: research in the Roman province 1970-2001 : papers in honour of J.J by David Davison, Vincent L. Gaffney, J. J. Wilkes, Emilio Marin, 2006, page 21, "...completely Hellenised town...". Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). Doson led Macedon to victory in the war against the Spartan king Cleomenes III, and occupied Sparta. Bedal, Leigh-Ann; The Petra Pool-complex: A Hellenistic Paradeisos in the Nabataean Capital, pg 178. [6] This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to these new realms, spanning as far as modern-day India. [65] After the death of Ptolemy IV (204 BC), Antiochus took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to conquer Coele-Syria in the fifth Syrian war (202–195 BC). The Hellenistic influence in Iran was significant in terms of scope, but not depth and durability—unlike the Near East, the Iranian–Zoroastrian ideas and ideals remained the main source of inspiration in mainland Iran, and was soon revived in late Parthian and Sasanian periods.[76]. The language of Philip II's and Alexander's court and army (which was made up of various Greek and non-Greek speaking peoples) was a version of Attic Greek, and over time this language developed into Koine, the lingua franca of the successor states. Finally, in 27 BC, Augustus directly annexed Greece to the new Roman Empire as the province of Achaea. What is the denotative and connotative meaning of clouds? Sappho was a Greek lyric poet, born on the island of Lesbos. However, William Woodthorpe Tarn, between World War I and World War II and the heyday of the League of Nations, focused on the issues of racial and cultural confrontation and the nature of colonial rule. These owe something to the pervasive influence of Achaemenid architecture and sculpture, with no little Greek architectural ornament and sculptural style as well. Peter Green, on the other hand, writes from the point of view of late-20th-century liberalism, his focus being on individualism, the breakdown of convention, experiments, and a postmodern disillusionment with all institutions and political processes. Hinüber (2000), pp. Why don't libraries smell like bookstores? Under Antiochus I (c. 324/323 – 261 BC), however, the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories. Antigonus then sent his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece. It was founded by Mithridates I in 291 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. Carthaginian culture came into contact with the Greeks through Punic colonies in Sicily and through their widespread Mediterranean trade network. After the death of Menander (c. 130 BC), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. The most brilliant age in the history of science prior to the seventeenth century a.d. was the period of the Hellenistic civilization. In the field of philosophy, Diogenes Laërtius' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source; works such as Cicero's De Natura Deorum also provide some further detail of philosophical schools in the Hellenistic period. Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul were mostly limited to the Mediterranean coast of Provence, France. After being defeated by Ptolemy IV's forces at Raphia (217 BC), Antiochus III led a long campaign to the east to subdue the far eastern breakaway provinces (212–205 BC) including Bactria, Parthia, Ariana, Sogdiana, Gedrosia and Drangiana. These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the Ptolemaieia at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. Arnaldo Momigliano, an Italian Jew who wrote before and after the Second World War, studied the problem of mutual understanding between races in the conquered areas. [19] Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. [20] Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt and Antigonus was soon at war with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Carte de la Macédoine et du monde égéen vers 200 av. The Roman consul Lucius Mummius advanced from Macedonia and defeated the Greeks at Corinth, which was razed to the ground. In 317 BC, Cassander invaded Macedonia, attaining control of Macedon, sentencing Olympias to death and capturing the boy king Alexander IV, and his mother. mathmatics (geometry) and science, along with Astronomy, figuring Moses Hadas portrayed an optimistic picture of synthesis of culture from the perspective of the 1950s, while Frank William Walbank in the 1960s and 1970s had a materialistic approach to the Hellenistic period, focusing mainly on class relations. As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 83,000 lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. [135] Another astronomer, Aristarchos of Samos, developed a heliocentric system. After conquering the Indo-Greeks, the Kushan empire took over Greco-Buddhism, the Greek language, Greek script, Greek coinage and artistic styles. 9 years ago. 1 Answer. [22] He was defeated in 288 BC when Lysimachus of Thrace and Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Macedon on two fronts, and quickly carved up the kingdom for themselves. Michael Rostovtzeff, who fled the Russian Revolution, concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule. Edit. Though victorious, he was forced to retreat due to heavy losses, hence the term "Pyrrhic victory". Hellenistic Civilization DRAFT. Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of Iphicrates and Philip II of Macedon, particularly his use of the Macedonian Phalanx, a dense formation of pikemen, in conjunction with heavy companion cavalry. The Seleucid–Parthian wars continued as the Seleucids invaded Mesopotamia under Antiochus VII Sidetes (reigned 138–129 BC), but he was eventually killed by a Parthian counterattack. What were Archimedes achievements? Hellenistic art nevertheless had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. He had been a student of Callimachus and later became chief librarian (prostates) of the library of Alexandria. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through ancient Greek coinage. F.W. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek mercenaries (misthophoroi; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. During the reign of Mithridates II, Pontus was allied with the Seleucids through dynastic marriages. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes.[122]. The "Brihat-Samhita" of the mathematician Varahamihira says: "The Greeks, though impure, must be honored since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled others...".[91]. Favorite Answer. The period from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 b.c. In 255 BC, Ariarathes III took the title of king and married Stratonice, a daughter of Antiochus II, remaining an ally of the Seleucid kingdom. References: Boardman, John The Oxford History of Greece & the Hellenistic World 2nd Edition Oxford University Press, 1988. [16], Period of ancient Greek and Mediterranean history, "Greek world" redirects here. Hellenistic Age. Ptolemy built new cities such as Ptolemais Hermiou in upper Egypt and settled his veterans throughout the country, especially in the region of the Faiyum. 126 times. [37] The Diadochi also used Thracian mercenaries in their armies and they were also used as colonists. The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities, a practice termed 'Interpretatio graeca', stimulated the building of Greek-style temples, and Greek culture in the cities meant that buildings such as gymnasia and theaters became common. [74] Tigranes' successor Artavasdes II even composed Greek tragedies himself. In the Indo-Greek kingdom we find kings who were converts to Buddhism (e.g., Menander). Hellenistic age - Hellenistic age - Philosophy: The philosophers of the period pursued autarkeia (self-sufficiency), or nonattachment. The separation of the Indo-Greek kingdom from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom resulted in an even more isolated position, and thus the details of the Indo-Greek kingdom are even more obscure than for Bactria. The vast Seleucid Empire was, like Egypt, mostly dominated by a Greco-Macedonian political elite. Callimachus was extremely influential in his time and also for the development of Augustan poetry. What is the analysis of the poem song by nvm gonzalez? 66% average accuracy. [66] He then began expanding his influence into Pergamene territory in Asia and crossed into Europe, fortifying Lysimachia on the Hellespont, but his expansion into Anatolia and Greece was abruptly halted after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC). The philosophers Xeno and Epicurus founded their philosophical schools, and stoicism and Epicureanism are still with us today. astronomy. Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, page 92. The Parthians continued worshipping Greek gods syncretized together with Iranian deities. What is the rhythm tempo of the song sa ugoy ng duyan? The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the Ptolemies adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as god-kings. Thus, in less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. Bivar, A.D.H. The Seleucid Antiochus III had allied with Philip V of Macedon in 203 BC, agreeing that they should jointly conquer the lands of the boy-king of Egypt, Ptolemy V. After defeating Ptolemy in the Fifth Syrian War, Antiochus concentrated on occupying the Ptolemaic possessions in Asia Minor. After the defeat of Anthony and his lover, the last Ptolemaic monarch, Cleopatra VII, at the Battle of Actium, Augustus invaded Egypt and took it as his own personal fiefdom. [7] This mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world. The term Hellenistic is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta, but also a huge time range. In states such as the Achaean league, this also involved the admission of other ethnic groups into the federation with equal rights, in this case, non-Achaeans. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from 4.4 to 78 kg (9.7 to 172.0 lb). Their rulers established ruler cults in the manner of Hellenistic kings and often used Hellenistic royal epithets. At this point the tripartite territorial division of the Hellenistic age was in place, with the main Hellenistic powers being Macedon under Demetrius's son Antigonus II Gonatas, the Ptolemaic kingdom under the aged Ptolemy I and the Seleucid empire under Seleucus' son Antiochus I Soter. However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. What are some of the scientific achievements of the Hellenistic period? The Odrysian Kingdom was a union of Thracian tribes under the kings of the powerful Odrysian tribe centered around the region of Thrace. For some purposes the period is extended for a further three and a half centuries, to the move by Constantine the Great of his The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look. As a result of the confusion in Greece at the end of the Second Macedonian War, the Seleucid Empire also became entangled with the Romans. Claessen & Skalník (editors), The Early State, page 428. [120] The worship of Alexander was also popular, as in the long lived cult at Erythrae and of course, at Alexandria, where his tomb was located. [109] The island of Rhodes had a library and also boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. The Ptolemaic ruler cult portrayed the Ptolemies as gods, and temples to the Ptolemies were erected throughout the kingdom. Hellenism, have been widely used in various contexts; a notable such use is in Culture and Anarchy by Matthew Arnold, where Hellenism is used in contrast with Hebraism.[14]. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. The concept of Hellenization, meaning the adoption of Greek culture in non-Greek regions, has long been controversial. Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people. He and his successors also fought a series of wars with the Seleucids, known as the Syrian wars, over the region of Coele-Syria. [53] The monarch was also expected to serve as a charitable patron of the people; this public philanthropy could mean building projects and handing out gifts but also promotion of Greek culture and religion. He began removing and appointing satraps as if he were king and also raided the royal treasuries in Ecbatana, Persepolis and Susa, making off with 25,000 talents. This came to an end when they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax who tried to defeat Attalus, the ruler of Pergamon (241–197 BC). Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I. Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others. Agathocles extended his power throughout most of the Greek cities in Sicily, fought a long war with the Carthaginians, at one point invading Tunisia in 310 BC and defeating a Carthaginian army there. [25] A large number of the Macedonian population had also been resettled abroad by Alexander or had chosen to emigrate to the new eastern Greek cities. The kingdom of Meroë was in constant contact with Ptolemaic Egypt and Hellenistic influences can be seen in their art and archaeology. Walbank et al. Magic was practiced widely, and this, too, was a continuation from earlier times. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. Pontic culture was a mix of Greek and Iranian elements; the most hellenized parts of the kingdom were on the coast, populated by Greek colonies such as Trapezus and Sinope, the latter of which became the capital of the kingdom. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 43. [29] The Achean league was able to drive out the Macedonians from the Peloponnese and free Corinth, which duly joined the league. Numismatic evidence shows Greek artistic styles and the use of the Greek language. Which of the following was not conquered by the Greeks during the Hellenistic period? During the Hellenistic period, Judea became a frontier region between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt and therefore was often the frontline of the Syrian wars, changing hands several times during these conflicts. Hellenistic poets now sought patronage from kings, and wrote works in their honor. “Under the influence: Hellenism in ancient Jewish life.”. The Sophists proclaimed the centrality of humanity and agnosticism; the belief in Euhemerism (the view that the gods were simply ancient kings and heroes), became popular. Philip II was a strong and expansionist king and he took every opportunity to expand Macedonian territory. Cappadocia, a mountainous region situated between Pontus and the Taurus mountains, was ruled by a Persian dynasty. What floral parts are represented by eyes of pineapple? [109] Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity. The setting up of ruler cults was more based on the systematized honors offered to the kings (sacrifice, proskynesis, statues, altars, hymns) which put them on par with the gods (isotheism) than on actual belief of their divine nature. He promoted short poetic forms such as the epigram, epyllion and the iambic and attacked epic as base and common ("big book, big evil" was his doctrine). The Hellenistic West, pp. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as far away as modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. The west Balkan coast was inhabited by various Illyrian tribes and kingdoms such as the kingdom of the Dalmatae and of the Ardiaei, who often engaged in piracy under Queen Teuta (reigned 231–227 BC). The Scythie nations, down to the fall of the Western empire, p. 4. Once the Second Punic War had been resolved, and the Romans had begun to regather their strength, they looked to re-assert their influence in the Balkans, and to curb the expansion of Philip. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. How did Rizal overcome frustration in his romance? Relevance. Cosmopolitan societies arose — very reminiscent of the current age. The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology) by Z. H. Archibald,1998. During the Hellenistic period the importance of Greece proper within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. [137][failed verification] Similarly complex devices were also developed by other Muslim engineers and astronomers during the Middle Ages. Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools. McGing, BC. Between 255 and 246 BC, the governor of Bactria, Sogdiana and Margiana (most of present-day Afghanistan), one Diodotus, took this process to its logical extreme and declared himself king. Greeks continued being an important part of the cultural world of India for generations. His son, Herod Archelaus, ruled from 4 BC to AD 6 when he was deposed for the formation of Roman Judea. [59][61][62][63] The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece. [45] A staunch ally of Rome, Massalia retained its independence until it sided with Pompey in 49 BC and was then taken by Caesar's forces. Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus, invaded north-western India in 180 BC, after the destruction of the Mauryan Empire there; the Mauryans were probably allies of the Bactrians (and Seleucids). People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Macedonian and Hellenistic monarchs were expected to lead their armies on the field, along with a group of privileged aristocratic companions or friends (hetairoi, philoi) which dined and drank with the king and acted as his advisory council. The Greek kingdom of Bactria began as a breakaway satrapy of the Seleucid empire, which, because of the size of the empire, had significant freedom from central control. During the course of this war Roman troops moved into Asia for the first time, where they defeated Antiochus again at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC). Cleopatra, the wife of Tigranes the Great, invited Greeks such as the rhetor Amphicrates and the historian Metrodorus of Scepsis to the Armenian court, and—according to Plutarch—when the Roman general Lucullus seized the Armenian capital, Tigranocerta, he found a troupe of Greek actors who had arrived to perform plays for Tigranes. Greek emigres faced individual religious choices they had not faced on their home cities, where the gods they worshiped were dictated by tradition. Contrarily, having so firmly entrenched themselves into Greek affairs, the Romans now completely ignored the rapidly disintegrating Seleucid empire (perhaps because it posed no threat); and left the Ptolemaic kingdom to decline quietly, while acting as a protector of sorts, in as much as to stop other powers taking Egypt over (including the famous line-in-the-sand incident when the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to invade Egypt). However, Greek urban civilisation seems to have continued in Bactria after the fall of the kingdom, having a hellenising effect on the tribes which had displaced Greek rule. Some of gold and silver with openwork designs of stylised birds have a similar distribution to the Mramorac bracelets and may also have been produced under Greek influence.". Green, Peter (1990); Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. The Seleucids for example took on Apollo as patron, the Antigonids had Herakles, and the Ptolemies claimed Dionysus among others.[119]. The nobility also adopted Greek fashions in dress, ornament and military equipment, spreading it to the other tribes. Ariarathes V also waged war with Rome against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated in 130 BC. Antigonus II ruled until his death in 239 BC. The Hellenistic Age was an era in Greece that extended from 323 BCE to 31 BCE. In the Seleucid Empire, for example, this group amounted to only 2.5 percent of the official class.[114]. Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by realism and the depiction of emotion (pathos) and character (ethos). Much of the eastern part of the empire was then conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by the Armenian king Tigranes the Great and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey. 54-55. [101] The core of Carthage's military was the Greek-style phalanx formed by citizen hoplite spearmen who had been conscripted into service, though their armies also included large numbers of mercenaries. Undoubtedly Greek influence did spread through the Hellenistic realms, but to what extent, and whether this was a deliberate policy or mere cultural diffusion, have been hotly debated. The Hellenistic Period brought along with it many innovations of culture and knowledge, such as geometry and sculpture, with major famous mathematicians such as Euclid (the founder of geometry), along with Pythagoras (founder of the Pythagorean Theorem), and Archimedes. As the Greek and Levantine cultures mingled, the development of a hybrid Hellenistic culture began, and persisted even when isolated from the main centres of Greek culture (for instance, in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom). During the Hellenistic period the leading figure in Sicily was Agathocles of Syracuse (361–289 BC) who seized the city with an army of mercenaries in 317 BC. This period also saw the adoption of new weapons and troop types such as Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai who used the oval Thureos shield and fought with javelins and the machaira sword. While victorious in the field, it seems Antiochus came to realise that there were advantages in the status quo (perhaps sensing that Bactria could not be governed from Syria), and married one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son, thus legitimising the Greco-Bactrian dynasty. After Demetrius' death, civil wars between Bactrian kings in India allowed Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). The first Greek colony in the region was Massalia, which became one of the largest trading ports of Mediterranean by the 4th century BC with 6,000 inhabitants. In 146 BC, the Greek peninsula, though not the islands, became a Roman protectorate. Sculpture and painting became more human-focused, a phenomenon that resurfaced later in the Renaissance. His son, Zipoetes I of Bithynia maintained this autonomy against Lysimachus and Seleucus I, and assumed the title of king (basileus) in 297 BC. Only one play, Dyskolos, survives in its entirety. It led to a steady emigration, particularly of the young and ambitious, to the new Greek empires in the east. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition. [60] It later became a Roman client state. After their defeats by Pergamon and Rome the Galatians slowly became hellenized and they were called "Gallo-Graeci" by the historian Justin[71] as well as Ἑλληνογαλάται (Hellēnogalátai) by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica v.32.5, who wrote that they were "called Helleno-Galatians because of their connection with the Greeks."[72]. Recently, however, papyrologist C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system, interactions between kings and cities, and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period. Behind his rejection of traditional allegiances lay a profound concern with moral values. Not just in one field, but in everything they set their minds to...As subjects of a tyrant, what had they accomplished?...Held down like slaves they had shirked and slacked; once they had won their freedom, not a citizen but he could feel like he was labouring for himself"[147]. In 352 BC he annexed Thessaly and Magnesia. In Athens, the mathematician Euclid began his school and became the founder of modern geometry. Beliefs And Achievements Of Alexander The Great 1058 Words | 5 Pages “Greek literature and theater remain[ing] cultural influences in the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East for 900 years”, (Document 5). The word originated from the German term hellenistisch, from ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής (Hellēnistḗs, "one who uses the Greek language"), from Ἑλλάς (Hellás, "Greece"); as if "Hellenist" + "ic". Armies of the Hellenistic period differed from those of the classical period in being largely made up of professional soldiers and also in their greater specialization and technical proficiency in siege warfare. Illyrians imported weapons and armor from the ancient Greeks (such as the Illyrian type helmet, originally a Greek type) and also adopted the ornamentation of ancient Macedon on their shields[34] and their war belts[35] (a single one has been found, dated 3rd century BC at modern Selce e Poshtme, a part of Macedon at the time under Philip V of Macedon[36]). The term Hellenistic also implies that the Greek populations were of majority in the areas in which they settled, but in many cases, the Greek settlers were actually the minority among the native populations. Sparta remained independent, but it was no longer the leading military power in the Peloponnese. Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus, Pausanias, Pliny, and the Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda. The Hellenistic Period began following the death of Alexander in 323 B.C., and lasted until 31 B.C., by which time the Romans had almost conquered all the territories under Macedonian rule. These Hellenized Scythians were known as the "young Scythians". Antigonus remained in charge of Asia Minor, Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace and Seleucus I controlled Babylon. Attalus severely defeated the Gauls, forcing them to confine themselves to Galatia. Momigliano, Arnaldo. Intermixed and Hellenized Greco-Scythians his military and even the elite cavalry units of the of... Arsaces II by Antiochus century onwards I, defeated the Romans slowly adopted Greek the. Poti and Sukhumi with the nature of government 150 authors. [ 4.... 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