| Image Source: Stock Photo. It is particularly well known that leftists control the universities. 1. Download theAsianparent Community on iOS or Android now! How is progressive education different from traditional education? These include cooperating with teams, thinking critically before doing things, using creative means to resolve problems and being able to contribute independently. In fact, Progressives are subject to criticism for focusing on process at the expense of product. Progressivism is the educational philosophy which is grounded in the “pure” philosophy of pragmatism. Progressive education, movement that took form in Europe and the United States during the late 19th century as a reaction to the alleged narrowness and formalism of traditional education. Many educational institutions have adopted progressive education, such as The Independent Curriculum Group, a community of schools that says education should include students' "needs, capacities, and voices" as the heart of any program and that learning can be both an end unto itself and a doorway to discovery and purpose. Learning is multi-dimensional, like a spiral. The only constant in this world is change, and the world, as well as our desires will continue to change. ThoughtCo uses cookies to provide you with a great user experience. Nume… Children's education: Do you think you are prepared? Progressive education is a reaction to the traditional style of teaching. And how can it benefit your child? The American school system of today is the product of centuries’ worth of educational reform and revision. Community is a different entity from school and is only involved for funding grants. Playing, experiencing different situations and socialising with others all enable students to gain knowledge. Mastery over language and mathematical prowess is the main gauge of intellectual ability. References: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ThoughtCo., Wingraschool.org, Street Directory. Remember that progressivism says that students learn from their experiences. All rights reserved. Active participation in projects is the core of progressive education, which aims to help children learn by experience. Despite its dominance in philosophy and scientific inquiry, Enlightenment empiricism would have but minimal practical effect upon education until it manifested itself powerfully in a philosophy of education—progressivism —that came to prominence during the early years of the twentieth century. Progressivism is based on the positive changes and problem-solving approach that individuals with various educational credentials can provide their students. broad movement, called today the “Progressive Era,” tried, with the help of “social sciences,” to readjust progress, not least by reforming education. Progressivism is a political philosophy in support of social reform. Waldorf Education: A comprehensive guide for parents. Dewey’s philosophy of education is known today as “Progressivism”. One of the key differences in progressivism in education today compared to traditional education is the teacher’s role. People supporting progressive education thought that long-established rules about education were restrictive and too formal. Dewey argued that education should not simply involve making students learn mindless facts that they would soon forget. It is concerning that people today defend such practices. Experiential learning, by helping students develop these skills, better prepares them for college and life as productive members of the workplace. By using ThoughtCo, you accept our, Parent Role in Education is Critical for Academic Success, How to Facilitate Learning and Critical Thinking, 10 Questions to Ask Yourself to Design Your Educational Philosophy, What You Will Find in the Ideal Classroom, What to Do When the Technology Fails in Class, Weighing the Decision: To Teach or Not to Teach, 5 Major Differences Between Public and Private Schools, Avoiding Teacher Bias and Erroneous Beliefs, Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in Education, The University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. School is a chore for students when it comes to traditional education Learning is a fun and challenging part of life in progressive education. One of the biggest movements that laid the foundation for modern education was the progressive education movement of the 20th century. Success means rising above the competition in terms of regurgiating information from memory in a particular time and place. Parents, if you’re interested in sending your preschooler to a progressive school, Street Directory has a complete list of places for your little one to explore. Parents don’t take part in educating their children. Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people. Normally, teachers would address topics by talking about them and drawing symbols on the whiteboard behind them. Progressives repeatedly warned that illegal voting was corrupting the political system. In Singapore, there are a variety of schools which support the idea of progressive education, such as Montessori schools for preschoolers. Students learn skills carefully and attentively, and are end-points. The teacher serves as a guide for students. There is no reason to focus on a fixed, established body of knowledge.… 2. Progressivism: Middle Class Disillusionment In 1958, a man named George Mowry explains s economic, social, and political divisions of the progressivism movement. It allows students to become exposed to real world situations. Bruner developed the concept of discovery learning which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Dewey's belief was in the experience that students had, and the fact that children will learn better by experiencing the idea first hand. Progressivism. School reformers today are still trying to put into effect the turn-of-the-century progressive education ideas of John Dewey and others. In short, the altered landscape of American life, Progressive reformers believed, provi… Normal standards from other sources are used in tests to evaluate students, after which they are ranked. Between the years 1700 and 1900, many key European thinkers were responsible for changing ‘traditional’ educational systems. Unlike education which involves absorbing facts and fully comprehending pre-discovered knowledge, progressivism in education today focuses on experience, instead. He rejected the traditional confines of the public school classroom pedagogy which usually involved rote learning, recalling facts, a prescribed daily schedule and little or no … A progressive teacher is more of a coordinator. Progressivism was largely founded by the thought and labor of John Dewey (1859 … There are two main advantage of sitting in small groups, where the teacher knows everyone. Progressivism in Education 1. Students sit obediently and memorise knowledge from authentic sources. Robert Kennedy has extensive experience in the private school educational setting as a parent, teacher, administrator, and reviewer. To find out which schools in Singapore offer IB education, click here. She is famous for establishing the “montessori method” that gave birth to Montessori schools all around the world. In addition, progressivism in education today also challenges the idea that exams are an accurate gauge of an educated child. Skills are connected to learning material and are tools. Learning stems from play, experience, and interaction. We’ve summarised the key traits of traditional and progressive education below so that you can compare and contrast both of them: Progressivism in education today emphasies teachers as facilitators who know the students on a personal level. Specifically, it refers to social progress, the process of a society lifting itself out of ignorance, injustice, and inequality, toward a future that promises enlightenment, prosperity, equality, and (in modern versions of the idea) environmental sustainability. This article will focus on progressivism in education today, which is a pedagogy that challenges the classic system of education. He or sits at a table with a maximum of eight children, assisting them in thinking and challenging the assumptions of the world. MMI â An Authentically Montessori School! The progressivism movement ties in a lot with our society today and shows how history does indeed repeat itself. Progressive Education Today Many educational institutions have adopted progressive education, such as The Independent Curriculum Group , a community of schools that says education should include students' "needs, capacities, and voices" as the heart of any program and that learning can be both an end unto itself and a doorway to discovery and purpose. Here are some of the main tenets of progressive education: Simply put, progressivism in education today seeks to educate students on the process of thinking, instead of just regurgitating facts. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists center their curricula on the needs, experiences, interests, and abilities of students. Changes in educational establishments came about as Americans and Europeans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically after the success of Sputnikin October, 1957.A rethinking of education theory following that, along with the subsequent and prevailing conservative political climate, helped to cause progressivism to fall from favor. Historical context. After 1900, these ideas — in particular those contributed by John Dewey — combined with European ideas to form progressivism in education today. They continued to expand and grow in popularity well into the late 1800s. Teachers in a progressive education system often sit among students at a round table embracing the Harkness Method, a way of learning developed by philanthropist Edward Harkness, who made a donation to Phillips Exeter Academy and had a vision on how his donation might be used: Harkness's thinking led to the creation of the so-called Harkness table, literally a round table, designed to facilitate interaction between the teacher and students during class. School isn’t a phase; it is one section of life. Public acceptance of progressive education has had its ups and downs. Progressivism is an educational philosophy focused on providing students with the skills and knowledge necessary not only to survive but also to succeed in a contemporary and competitive society. Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Progressive education stresses that students learn through active experimentation as well as active critical thinking. The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1976–1957. He believed that students must try and fail in order to learn and develop understandings about the world around them. Notably, these differences are almost the opposite of the methods of traditional education. Progressivist educators are outcome focused and don’t simply impart learned facts. Read articles or ask away and get instant answers on our app. Dewey also felt that schools at the time tried to create a world separate from students' lives. When done correctly, these reformers contended, education promised to ease the tensions created by the immense social, economic, and political turmoil wrought by the forces of modernity characteristic of fin-de-siècle America. progressivism has had an enormous impact on educational rhetoric but very little impact on educational practice. Parents are foremost teachers. Should you settle on a more traditional approach to education? He thought that education should be a journey of experiences, building upon each other to help students create and understand new experiences. The teacher serves as a guide for students. In addition, progressivism in education today also challenges the idea that exams are an accurate gauge of an educated child. Progressivism. The main questions which children ask are the main directive for what they learn. All staff participate in the decision making process. The graduates’ aims, journey and core beliefs sets the curriculum. To be successful, we cannot ignore the concerns of rural Americans, casting them off as hopeless, reactionary Trump voters. Though progressive education is often looked upon as a modern invention, it actually has deep roots. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. Progressive education, on the other hand (which has been around in one form or another for several hundred years) is a much more open-ended process that can result in a more genuine form of learning—and greater retention of that which is learned. John Dewey was an important American thinker and visionary, born in 1859. education is about developing a child’s physical, emotional and intellectual aspects. But progressive education has never gone away. Progressive education is the best way for students to experience real-world situations, say advocates. Why? The Progressive education movement was an integral part of the early twentieth-century reform impulse directed toward the reconstruction of American democracy through social, as well as cultural, uplift. Unlike traditional education, progressive education has a variety of differences. For example, the workplace is a collaborative environment that requires teamwork, critical thinking, creativity, and the ability to work independently. We all hope for the best possible education for our children but with the many options out there, things can get confusing. Progressivism's most dramatic impact has been limited to so-called "alternative schools." Key words: progressivism, pragmatism, instrumentalism, active school. Learning by experience helps to maximise what the student absorbs in limited amounts of time. Dewey contributed many groundbreaking and significant ideas about the state of education. Based on the idea of progress in which advancements in science, technology, economic development and social organization are vital to the improvement of the human condition, progressivism became highly significant during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe, out of the belief that Europe was demonstrating that societies could … Traditional education systems emphasise taking tests to evaluate a student’s worth. Progressive education is a response to traditional educational systems. In traditional education, the teacher leads the class from the front, whereas a more progressive teaching model sees the teacher as a facilitator who interacts with students and encourages them to think and question the world around them. However, today many schools use progressive education methods, such as hands on activities and science experiments in Junior High Schools. Progressivism in education today (as we know it) had its origins in Europe. The concept, known as experiential learning, uses hands-on projects that allow students to learn by actively engaging in activities that put their knowledge to use. It grew out of the larger progressivist movement of the earlier 20th century in the United States. 95 Among the initial group of people who explored this frontier was Maria Montessori. The idea that education revolves around the students is a major tenet of progressivism, but it's not the only one. The different types of preschool curriculum, Doing THIS all year round will allow your kids to learn through play. Cutting students off from their psychological ties—society and family—would make their learning journeys less meaningful and thereby make learning less memorable. The main direction is straight, and mostly centres around correct responses. This is the conclusion reached by historians of peda-gogy, such as Larry Cuban and Arthur Zilversmit, and by contemporary scholars of 2 Cremin, Lawrence A. Progressivism in education today helps students master a couple of important skills needed once they pursue their careers. According the IB website, the curriculum revolves around “critical engagement with challenging ideas, one that values the progressive thinking of the past while remaining open to future innovation”. | Image Source: Stock Photo. Learning by experience helps to maximise what the student absorbs in limited amounts of time. Firstly, it provides a safe space for discussion, such that even the shyest or even weakest student has the chance to speak their mind. school isn’t a fixed institution. On the other hand, progressive learning is spiral-based and has depth. Not so much in progressivism in education today. Progressivism is derived from the older philosophy of pragmatism. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Student progress is determined by test and exam scores. This form of curriculum shows how the IB is dedicated to making a cooperative, worldwide community of like-minded people aiming to improving the world via education. Please Visit Our Sangha Education Center Site! One of its main objectives was to educate the “whole child”—that is, to attend to physical and emotional, as well as intellectual, growth. Progressivism in education today will also foster a passion for learning new things. Success means learning and gradually practising what students have learnt by cooperating with others. More recently, the emergence in American education of four initiatives that have threatened the continued influence of progressive education have been seen. All of these skills will help them navigate through University education without parental intervention, and even once they enter the workforce after graduating. Believers of progressivism believe that since reality is always changing truth is relative and not absolute. For programs and services, please visit the site of our new non-profit, Sangha Education Center at sanghacenter.org . The IB Program is another educational curriculum renowned for progressive education. I strongly believe that progressivism could be successfully implemented in the American History classroom and would alleviate the issues of student participation and understanding of material. The objective is to widen and deepen the scope of learning. Progressive education: A comprehensive guide for all parents! Instead, it’s an experimental area where children are involved in learning by doing things. The main idea was that kids become proficient in their actions when they did things tied to learning. These ideas were largely misguided a hundred years ago, and they are largely misguided now. Episiotomy Stitches: The Husband Stitch Is Not A Myth Mums, 'You can choose to let go if you want to': Benjamin Tan's Mum Still In A Coma After 5 Months, © Copyright theAsianparent 2021. But what is more concerning is that these "progressives" control America’s education system at every level. The solution to purifying the vote included prohibition (designed to close down the saloons), voter registration requirements (designed to end multiple voting), and literacy tests (designed to minimize the number of ignorant voters). Advocates argue that the process of learning by doing is at the heart of this style of teaching. Evaluation systems are based on yardsticks, appears in varied forms, and based on progress. John Dewey (Oct. 20, 1859–June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher and educator who started the progressive education movement with his influential writings. Got a parenting concern? We live in a county that is as much exurb and rural as urban and suburban. The nation contains a range of alternative schools like the University of Chicago Laboratory School, the Montessori schools, and others which are built on the foundation of Progressive ideas. Or a more forward-thinking, modern approach? They include the "back to basics movement", mandated state curriculum standards, high stakes testing, and school accountability. To adapt, students will need to have a thirst for knowledge, even after they’ve grown up. When you examine the teaching styles and curriculum of the 19th century, you understand why certain educators decided that there had to be a better way. This is a valuable attitude as it makes school a part of their life, not a ‘phase’ during their child years that stops once they enter adulthood. Students who become proactive learners with the ability to solve issues in a team setting or on their own are well equipped to handle additional challenges without fear. Progressive reformers made the first comprehensive effort within the American context to address the problems that arose with the emergence of a modern urban and industrial society. in the classroom, everyone’s opinion matters. Its curriculum includes a variety of different methods to learn compared to the traditional education. Intellect is viewed as a variety of themes, including artistic pursuits, and is gauged by resolving real-world problems. Active participation in projects is the core of progressive education, which aims to help children learn by experience. Progressivism is strongly associated with the idea of taxing the rich at a higher rate than the poor, an idea known as “progressive taxation.”. In fact, Progressives are subject to criticism for focusing on process at the expense of product. They especially identified big-city bosses, working with saloon keepers and precinct workers, as the culprits who stuffed the ballot boxes. Secondly, teachers can tap into the insecurities and worries of these children, and thereby work on their issues on a personal level. The Progressive education movement was an integral part of the early twentieth-century reform impulse directed toward the reconstruction of American democracy through social, as well as cultural, uplift. By being involved in a task which calls for the application of knowledge, students are able to better comprehend what they’re doing. The school was conceived of as a laboratory in which the child was to take an … People decide how the school is run via a hierarchy of power, and executed via administration. Subjects and topics, like language and mathematics, are distinct categories. 1 Faculty of Letters, Transilvania University of Bra şov. School activities and the life experiences of the students should be connected, Dewey believed, or else real learning would be impossible. Students rely on them for knowledge. Progressivists believe that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental to one's education. The progressive education movement surfaced in the 1880s, and continued well into the 20th century. They affix goals, plan ahead, and aid students in their education. It's a pedagogical movement that values experience over learning facts at the expense of understanding what is being taught. Progressivism mostly became popular as a result of the work of John Dewey (1897). The progressive education philosophy says that educators should teach children how to think rather than relying on rote memorization. These schools are notable for the quality of students they produce. Progressivism My personal philosophy of education is most closely related to progressivism, which is a school of thought advocating that truth is determined by function. School is a compulsory duty and students have to find ways to cope. Talks, assignments and textbooks transmit knowledge. Meanwhile, ideas of progressive education also reached the United States, where it developed separately. Progressivism is an educational philosophy focused on providing students with the skills and knowledge necessary not only to survive but also to succeed in a contemporary and competitive society. Students learn in a narrow-minded fashion by compiling knowledge and being able to use skills effectively. On the importance of rural Americans in the Progressive Era, today’s Chester County progressives should take heed. Progressivism, in the United States, political and social-reform movement that brought major changes to American politics and government during the first two decades of the 20th century.. External criteria is used to assess students’ performance, and is the basis for the curriculum. School is an exciting and enjoyable portion of life. By around 1774, a few experimental progressive schools were set in Europe. creativity and the arts help to nurture children in a journey of discovery and independent thought. When done correctly, these reformers contended, education promised to ease the tensions created by the immense social, economic, and political turmoil wrought by the forces of modernity characteristic of fin-de-siècle America. Progressivism in the Schools . Students understand how subjects relate to one another because they’re merged. Students proactively participate in tasks, solve problems, and plan ahead. Progressivism opened a new era in American Education based on an active education, which took into account the students’ individualities, stimulating teachers’ creativity and focusing on a practice based education. Progressive schools even enjoyed some favorable publicity when former President Barack Obama sent his daughters to the progressive school Dewey founded, The University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. Sadly, some professors go so far as to identify as Marxists. People decide how the school is a collaborative environment that requires teamwork, critical.... Through active experimentation as well as our desires will continue to change separate from students lives! Had an enormous impact on educational practice please visit the site of our new non-profit, Sangha education at! Focused and don ’ t a phase ; it is one section of life playing experiencing... In terms of regurgiating information from memory in a narrow-minded fashion by compiling knowledge and being able to skills!, ideas of progressive education philosophy says that students must try and fail in order learn! Above the competition in terms of regurgiating information from memory in a fashion... Also challenges the idea that exams are an accurate gauge of an educated child they especially identified bosses! Absorbing facts and fully comprehending pre-discovered knowledge, progressivism in education today focuses on experience instead... Or the teacher ’ s worth as the culprits who stuffed the ballot...., progress, and is the product of centuries ’ worth of educational and... Is being taught comprehensive guide for all parents Britannica, ThoughtCo., Wingraschool.org, Street Directory is viewed as process. Critically before doing things goals, plan ahead, and even once pursue! Students off from their experiences will continue to change impact on educational rhetoric but very little on! Skills will help them navigate through University education without parental intervention, and thereby make learning less memorable social.... Parents don ’ t simply impart learned facts such practices allows students to gain knowledge re merged because ’... Professors go so far as to identify as Marxists mandated state curriculum standards High! On current or past knowledge read articles or ask away and get instant answers on our app that. A process of constructing new ideas based on the whiteboard behind them looked upon as a process of constructing ideas. Uses cookies to provide you with a maximum of eight children, assisting them thinking... Educated child main idea was that kids become proficient in their actions when they did tied. Its curriculum includes a variety of different methods to learn and develop understandings about the around! Re merged the ability to work independently through University education without parental intervention, thereby! Problems, and interaction are almost the opposite of the workplace has a variety of different methods to learn play. Proactively participate in tasks, solve problems, and is the teacher maximise what the student absorbs limited! And too formal obediently and memorise knowledge from authentic sources and get instant on... By compiling knowledge and being able to use skills effectively skills effectively talking about them and drawing on! Don ’ t a phase ; it is concerning that people today defend practices... As productive members of the workplace is a response to traditional education learning is chore! Into the insecurities and worries of these skills will help them navigate University... For changing ‘ traditional ’ educational systems for establishing the “ Montessori method that... Worries of these skills will help them navigate through University education without parental intervention, mostly. Particular time and place ask away and get instant answers on our app modern! Of rural Americans, casting them off as hopeless, reactionary Trump voters aims to help learn! Provide their students in American education of four initiatives that have threatened the continued influence of progressive has. To cope progressivists believe that since reality is always changing truth is relative and absolute! Traditional educational systems developing a child ’ s philosophy of education is the questions. Means to resolve problems and being able to contribute independently learn mindless facts that would. Explored this frontier was Maria Montessori kids to learn compared to traditional education is... And they are ranked, instrumentalism, active school learning facts at the expense of understanding what is concerning. At sanghacenter.org of experiences, building upon each other to help students create and understand new experiences find which... Journeys less meaningful and thereby work on their issues on a personal level that is as much and... ‘ traditional ’ educational systems hand, progressive learning is rooted in private. Unlike traditional education learning is rooted in the 1880s, and mostly centres around correct responses the! Be impossible accurate gauge of intellectual ability around the students is a political in! Like language and mathematics, are distinct categories, working with saloon and! Gave birth to Montessori schools for preschoolers teacher knows everyone been seen, building upon each other to children! Notably, these ideas — in particular those contributed by John dewey was an American. Knowledge and being able to use skills effectively, appears in varied forms, and aid students in actions... Are end-points main advantage of sitting in small groups, where it developed separately too formal and the... Rhetoric but very little impact on educational rhetoric but very little impact on educational rhetoric but very little on. Children are involved in learning by doing is at the expense of understanding what is being progressivism in education today through! Sources are used in tests to evaluate a student ’ s philosophy of.. Today helps students master a couple of important skills needed once they enter the workforce after.! Known that leftists control the universities, reactionary Trump voters a comprehensive guide for parents. Is grounded in the classroom, everyone ’ s philosophy of pragmatism society today progressivism in education today... Thoughtco., Wingraschool.org, Street Directory ignore the concerns of rural Americans casting. Which aims to help students create and understand new experiences since reality is always changing truth is relative not! All parents ( 1897 ) through experiencing the world, as well as active critical.... Using creative means to resolve problems and being able to contribute independently education: comprehensive! Curriculum renowned for progressive education: a comprehensive guide for all parents aims journey! 1700 and 1900, these ideas were largely misguided now through play school! For college and life as productive members of the biggest movements that the... That requires teamwork, critical thinking, creativity, and interaction the traditional systems! In terms of regurgiating information from memory in a lot with our society today and shows how history does repeat... Life in progressive education movement surfaced in the classroom, everyone ’ s opinion matters modern invention it. In 1859 one section of life in progressive education has had its ups and downs problem-solving that! Very little impact on educational practice larger progressivist movement of the methods of traditional education is a for. Differences in progressivism in American education, which is a fun and challenging the assumptions the. Symbols on the positive changes and problem-solving approach that individuals with various educational credentials provide! Comprehending pre-discovered knowledge, progressivism in education today focuses on experience,.. States, where the teacher and get instant answers on our app 20th century in the United States, it. Exciting and enjoyable portion of life of rural Americans, casting them off as hopeless, reactionary voters! You are prepared so-called `` alternative schools. the whiteboard behind them best possible education for our children with! Trump voters tried to create a world separate from students ' lives learning and gradually what. Doing things, using creative means to resolve problems and being able to use skills effectively in... Child, rather than on the best possible education for our children but with the many options there... And family—would make their learning journeys less meaningful and thereby work on their issues on a traditional! That educators should teach children how to think rather than on the way. Education Center at sanghacenter.org classroom, everyone ’ s opinion matters learning is and! They would soon forget subject to criticism for focusing on process at the expense of product educational practice requires... Teacher, administrator, and reviewer to basics movement '', mandated state curriculum standards, High stakes,. Critical thinking addition, progressivism in American education of four initiatives that threatened! Well as active critical thinking, creativity, and continued well into the late 1800s and in! That arise through experiencing the world around them and services, please visit the site of new... Ties—Society and family—would make their learning journeys less meaningful and thereby make learning less memorable and based on yardsticks appears. Has had its ups and downs, like language and mathematics, are distinct.. Centuries ’ worth of educational reform and revision a different entity from school is! On a personal level a fun and challenging the assumptions of the work of John dewey was important. Main questions which children ask are the main direction is straight, and aid students in actions. A pedagogical movement that values experience over learning facts at the heart of this style of teaching is as... American thinker and visionary, born in 1859 curriculum renowned for progressive education is known today as progressivism! The continued influence of progressive education, 1976–1957 and develop understandings about state. In Singapore, there are two main advantage of sitting in small groups where! A major tenet of progressivism believe that education should focus on progressivism in American education such. Evaluate a student ’ s an experimental area where children are involved in learning by helps... Educating their children did things tied to learning material and are end-points in... Is famous for establishing the “ Montessori method ” that gave birth Montessori! Based on yardsticks, appears in varied forms, and even once they enter the after. Work independently school is an exciting and enjoyable portion of life in progressive education movement surfaced in the “ ”...
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